1795 – The French Directory, a five-man revolutionary government, is created.
The Directory was a five-member committee which governed France from 1795, when it replaced the Committee of Public Safety, until it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Coup of 18 Brumaire (8–9 November 1799) and replaced by the French Consulate. It gave its name to the final four years of the French Revolution.
The Directory was continually at war with foreign coalitions which at different times included Britain, Austria, Prussia, the Kingdom of Naples, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. It annexed Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine, while Bonaparte conquered a large part of Italy. The Directory established 196 short-lived sister republics modelled after France, in Italy, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The conquered cities and states were required to send to France huge amounts of money, as well as art treasures, which were used to fill the new Louvre museum in Paris. An army led by Bonaparte conquered Egypt and marched as far as Saint-Jean-d’Acre in Syria. The Directory defeated a resurgence of the War in the Vendée, the royalist-led civil war in the Vendée region, but failed in its venture to support the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and create an Irish Republic.
The French economy was in continual crisis during the Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty; the paper money, the Assignat, had fallen to a fraction of its value, and prices soared. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis; prices and wages fell, and economic activity slowed to a standstill.
In its first two years, the Directory concentrated on ending the excesses of the Jacobin Reign of Terror; mass executions stopped, and measures taken against exiled priests and royalists were relaxed. The Jacobin political club was closed and the government crushed an armed uprising planned by the Jacobins and an early socialist revolutionary, François-Noël Babeuf, known as “Gracchus Babeuf”. However, following the discovery of a royalist conspiracy including a prominent general, Pichegru, the Jacobins took charge of the new Councils and hardened the measures against the Church and émigrés. The Jacobins took two additional seats in the Directory, hopelessly dividing it.
In 1799, after several defeats, French victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland restored the French military position, but the Directory had lost the support of all the political factions. Bonaparte returned from Egypt in October, and was engaged by the Abbé Sieyès and others to carry out a parliamentary coup d’état on 8–9 November 1799. The coup abolished the Directory, and replaced it with the French Consulate led by Bonaparte.
1815 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1864)
George Boole (/ˈbuːl/; 2 November 1815 – 8 December 1864) was an English mathematician, educator, philosopher and logician. He worked in the fields of differential equations and algebraic logic, and is best known as the author of The Laws of Thought (1854) which contains Boolean algebra. Boolean logic is credited with laying the foundations for the information age.[3] Boole maintained that:
No general method for the solution of questions in the theory of probabilities can be established which does not explicitly recognise, not only the special numerical bases of the science, but also those universal laws of thought which are the basis of all reasoning, and which, whatever they may be as to their essence, are at least mathematical as to their form.[4]
John Salto: Making up metaphors
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Comments? Feasibility study?
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Political polarization refers to cases in which an individual’s stance on a given issue, policy, or person is more likely to be strictly defined by their identification with a particular political party (e.g., Democrat or Republican) or ideology (e.g., liberal or conservative).
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I’m not a diplomat, and I don’t have to bend to anybody to try to compromise to get some kind of legislation done. I know what I believe and I’ll say it. I just don’t, at this point, want to polarize people because we need numbers on the same page, whether it’s about Trump or in terms of climate change. We cannot polarize people now.
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While the folklore of vampires dates back far longer, with vampire-like monsters described in ancient tales in most of the world’s cultures, we can credit the wonderfully-lively Valvasor with having been the first to codify the vampire story, penned as fact, in a printed book. So this Halloween, maybe consider making Giure Grando, rather than Dracula, your muse.
What would work in your city year-round?
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This incredible shot by Artur Stanisz demonstrates the value of patience in photography. After having nothing but clouds, snow, and darkness for days, Artur woke up to this fantastic scene in the middle of the night. No one ever said photography was easy, but, boy, the results sure can be worth it!
By Alex Schultz: Inspirational Photo of the Day Nov 01 2017
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wikimedia
- Wikimedia Commons picture of the day for December 28 December 28, 2024Picture of the day Satellite picture of the Etna volcano erupting in eastern Sicily (Italy) in December 2018.
- Wikimedia Commons picture of the day for December 27 December 27, 2024Picture of the day The Seehornsee in the Berchtesgaden Alps. On the right the normal route to the Seehorn.
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